A writ requiring a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court, especially to secure the person's release unless lawful grounds are shown for their detention.

The intention or knowledge of wrongdoing that constitutes part of a crime, as opposed to the action or conduct of the accused (actus reus).

The legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent.

The principle that the buyer alone is responsible for checking the quality and suitability of goods before a purchase is made. "Let the buyer beware".

A contract or legal document that is void from the very beginning.

A legal presumption that a child under a certain age is incapable of forming criminal intent.

An impartial adviser, often voluntary, to a court of law in a particular case. Translates to "friend of the court".

The rule of law on which a judicial decision is based. It is the legally binding part of a judgment.

A writ from a superior court to a lower court or government officer commanding them to perform a mandatory public duty. Translates to "we command".

A writ by which a higher court reviews a decision of a lower court for errors of law. Translates to "to be certified".

A writ requiring a person to show by what authority they exercise a public office. Translates to "by what authority?".

A writ from a superior court to a lower court or tribunal to prevent it from exceeding its jurisdiction.

The wrongful act or omission that comprises the physical component of a crime.

From the beginning.

A defense that the accused was in another place at the time the crime was committed.

In good faith; genuine.

In fact; in reality. Describes practices that exist in reality, even if not legally recognized.

By law. Describes practices that are legally recognized, regardless of whether they exist in reality.

By the fact itself. A direct consequence of an action.

A pending lawsuit. A written notice that a lawsuit has been filed concerning real estate.

A particular way or method of doing something, especially one that is characteristic or well-established.

Based on the first impression; accepted as correct until proved otherwise.

Something for something. An exchange of goods or services, where one transfer is contingent upon the other.

(Of a proceeding) adjourned indefinitely, without a day appointed for resumption.

Under judicial consideration and therefore prohibited from public discussion elsewhere.

On its own motion. An action by a court without any request by the parties involved.

Beyond the powers. An act which requires legal authority but is done without it.

To a willing person, injury is not done. A defense in tort that a person who knowingly puts themselves at risk cannot sue for damages.

A person who brings a case against another in a court of law.

An individual, company, or institution sued or accused in a court of law.

An offence in which a police officer can arrest without a warrant.

An offence in which a police officer cannot arrest without a warrant.

A judgment that a person is not guilty of the crime with which they have been charged.

A formal declaration that someone is guilty of a criminal offence, made by the verdict of a jury or the decision of a judge.

A written statement confirmed by oath or affirmation, for use as evidence in court.

An application to a higher court for a reversal of the decision of a lower court.

A form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR), is a way to resolve disputes outside the judiciary courts.

The practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats.

A sum of money awarded by a court to compensate for loss or injury.

An official order that has the force of law.

A legal principle that prevents someone from arguing something or asserting a right that contradicts what they previously said or agreed to by law.

A written document prepared by police organizations when they receive information about the commission of a cognizable offence.

A judicial order restraining a person from beginning or continuing an action, or compelling a person to carry out a certain act.

Security or protection against a loss or other financial burden.

The official power to make legal decisions and judgments.

A published false statement that is damaging to a person's reputation; a written defamation.

The action or crime of making a false spoken statement damaging to a person's reputation.

A right to keep possession of property belonging to another person until a debt owed by that person is discharged.

The process of taking legal action.

Failure to take proper care over something, resulting in damage or injury to another.

A law promulgated by the President/Governor when the Parliament/State Legislature is not in session.

The temporary or permanent release of a prisoner before the expiry of a sentence, on the promise of good behavior.

A formal written request, typically one signed by many people, appealing to authority in respect of a particular cause.

An earlier event or action that is regarded as an example or guide to be considered in subsequent similar circumstances.

An order to appear before a judge or magistrate.

A document issued by a legal or government official authorizing the police or another body to make an arrest, search premises, or carry out some other action.

The principle of separation of the state from religious institutions.

The supreme power or authority of a state to govern itself or another state.

A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.

A system of government in which entities such as states or provinces share power with a national government.

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another.

The power of a court to review the constitutionality of legislative acts and executive orders.

A procedural defence that prevents an accused person from being tried again on the same (or similar) charges following a valid acquittal or conviction.

A law that retroactively changes the legal consequences of actions that were committed before the enactment of the law.

The right or capacity to bring an action or to appear in a court.

Principles of justice that are based on the common-sense notions of fairness, including the right to a fair hearing and the rule against bias.

A judge's incidental expression of opinion, not essential to the decision and not legally binding as a precedent. "A saying by the way".

A matter that has been adjudicated by a competent court and therefore may not be pursued further by the same parties. "A matter decided".

A situation where someone is held responsible for the actions or omissions of another person.

A person who commits a tort (a civil wrong).

Unlawful interference with one's person, property, or rights.

An act which is harmful or offensive to the public or a member of it and for which there is a legal remedy.

Agreements must be kept. A fundamental principle of international and contract law.

An act that creates an apprehension in another of an imminent, harmful, or offensive contact.

The actual intentional striking of someone, with intent to harm, or in a rude and insolent manner even if the injury is slight.

A legal relationship in common law where physical possession of personal property is transferred from one person (the bailor) to another (the bailee).

The benefit that each party receives, or expects to receive when entering into a contract. It is a necessary element of a valid contract.

Threats, violence, constraints, or other action used to coerce someone into doing something against their will or better judgment.

A situation where unforeseen events make the performance of a contract impossible, illegal, or radically different from what was intended.

A false statement of fact made by one party to another, which has the effect of inducing that party into the contract.

A definite promise to be bound provided that certain specified terms are accepted.

An unconditional agreement to all the terms of an offer.

A court order which requires a party to perform a specific act, usually what is stated in a contract.

An agreement between a defendant and a prosecutor, in which the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a particular charge in return for some concession from the prosecutor.

The practice of obtaining something, especially money, through force or threats.

Dishonestly taking any movable property out of the possession of any person without that person's consent.

Theft by force or by threatening force.

Robbery committed by five or more persons.

The act of causing death with the intention of causing death, or with the intention of causing such bodily injury as is likely to cause death.

A more severe form of culpable homicide, committed with specific intentions like intent to kill or cause bodily injury sufficient in the ordinary course of nature to cause death.

Taking or enticing away a minor or a person of unsound mind out of the keeping of the lawful guardian without their consent.

Forcibly or by deceitful means compelling a person to go from any place.

A person appointed to act for another in business or legal matters; a lawyer.

A person who puts a case on someone else's behalf. In India, a legal professional who is registered with the Bar Council.

A law officer who conducts criminal proceedings on behalf of the state or in the public interest.

The temporary release of an accused person awaiting trial, sometimes on condition that a sum of money is lodged to guarantee their appearance in court.

The postponement of a court session or hearing until another date or time.

A final report prepared by the police after investigating a case. It contains all the charges against the accused.

A formal written or spoken statement, especially one given in a court of law.

A group of rights that have been recognized by a high degree of protection from encroachment. These are the rights which are fundamental for the development of any human being.

Guidelines for the central and state governments of India, to be kept in mind while framing laws and policies. They are not enforceable by any court.

A formal or official change made to a law, contract, constitution, or other legal document.

A formal process in which an official is accused of unlawful activity, the outcome of which may include the removal of that official from office.

The action of damaging the good reputation of someone; slander or libel.

The first document filed in a civil suit, which states the plaintiff's claim and the relief sought.

The defendant's reply to the plaint, in which they admit or deny the allegations.

A legal document by which a person expresses their wishes as to how their property is to be distributed at death.

The offence of willfully telling an untruth or making a misrepresentation under oath.

The theory or philosophy of law. The study of the principles of law and legal relations.

By the court as a whole. A decision of the entire court rather than an individual judge.

Body of the crime. The fact that a crime has been committed, which must be proved before conviction.

The part of a deed that defines the extent of ownership being granted.

At the outset. A motion made before or at the start of trial requesting certain evidence be excluded.

It is known by its associates. A principle of statutory interpretation where the meaning of a word is gathered from its context.

Of the same kind. A principle where general words following specific words are limited to things of the same type.

The expression of one thing is the exclusion of another. Mentioning one thing implies exclusion of others.

In bad faith. Done with bad or fraudulent intent.

Having discharged the office. When an official has completed their duty, they lose authority over the matter.

A warning or caution. A formal notice to a court to suspend proceedings until the filer is heard.

A legal process for collecting a monetary judgment by directing a third party to pay the debtor's money to the creditor.

A right to use another person's land for a stated purpose, such as right of way.

The reversion of property to the state when there are no legal heirs.

A claim or liability attached to property, such as a mortgage or lien.

A legal process by which a lender attempts to recover the amount owed on a defaulted loan by taking ownership of the mortgaged property.

A third party who holds property or money belonging to a judgment debtor.

Dying without a valid will. The estate is distributed according to succession laws.

Dying with a valid will in place.

The legal process of proving a will and distributing the estate of a deceased person.

A person appointed by the court to manage the estate of a deceased person who died intestate.

A person named in a will to carry out the deceased's wishes and manage the estate.

A supplement or addition to a will that modifies, explains, or revokes provisions in it.

A person who receives personal property under a will.

A person who receives real property under a will.

The revocation of a gift in a will by disposing of the gifted property before death.

The failure of a testamentary gift when the beneficiary dies before the testator.

The act of witnessing the execution of a written instrument and subscribing as a witness.

The official act of a notary public in certifying the authenticity of a signature or document.

A written authorization allowing one person to act on behalf of another in legal or financial matters.

A fiduciary arrangement where one party (trustee) holds property for the benefit of another (beneficiary).

A person who holds and manages property for the benefit of another.

A person who benefits from a trust, will, or insurance policy.

A person in a position of trust who owes a duty of care and loyalty to another.

Honest intention to act without taking unfair advantage of another person.

A severe degree of negligence representing a conscious and voluntary disregard of the need to use reasonable care.

A defense where the plaintiff's own negligence contributed to their injury, potentially reducing damages.

A system where damages are reduced based on the plaintiff's degree of fault.

An act or omission that naturally and directly produces a consequence, forming the basis of liability.

The substitution of a new contract, debt, or obligation for an existing one by mutual agreement.

The cancellation or annulment of a contract, restoring parties to their original positions.

As much as is deserved. A claim for reasonable payment for services rendered when no price was agreed.

An unforeseeable circumstance (like natural disaster) that prevents someone from fulfilling a contract.

A predetermined amount of money agreed upon in a contract to be paid if the contract is breached.

A contractual provision imposing a payment in case of breach, intended to punish rather than compensate.

In defamation law, an indirect or subtle derogatory implication in a statement.

A false statement that disparages the quality of someone's goods or products.

Misrepresenting one's goods or services as those of another to gain unfair advantage.

Initiating criminal or civil proceedings without reasonable cause and with malicious intent.

An agreement where a person finances another's lawsuit in return for a share of the proceeds.

Vexatious incitement to litigation or the offense of persistently stirring up quarrels.

A legal document ordering someone to attend court as a witness or produce documents.

A court order requiring a person to produce documents or records at a proceeding.

A witness's sworn out-of-court testimony recorded for later use in court.

The pre-trial phase where parties gather evidence from each other and third parties.

Written questions sent by one party to another to be answered under oath during discovery.

The preliminary examination of potential jurors or witnesses to determine their qualifications.

Evidence or argument presented to contradict or disprove the opposing party's case.

The questioning of a witness by the opposing party to challenge their testimony.

Second-hand evidence where a witness testifies not from personal knowledge but from what others said. Generally inadmissible.

Evidence that directly proves a fact, such as eyewitness testimony.

Indirect evidence that implies a fact but does not directly prove it.

Additional evidence that strengthens or confirms what has already been established.

A court's acceptance of a fact as true without requiring proof because it is commonly known.

A legal right to withhold information from disclosure, such as attorney-client privilege.

A question that suggests the answer or contains the information the questioner seeks to have confirmed.

The obligation to prove one's assertion in a legal proceeding.

The level of certainty required to prove a case (e.g., beyond reasonable doubt in criminal; preponderance of evidence in civil).

The standard of proof in civil cases, meaning more likely than not (over 50% certainty).

The high standard of proof required in criminal cases before conviction.

The acceptability of evidence in court according to the rules of evidence.

The tendency of evidence to make a material fact more or less probable.

The significance of evidence to the issues in the case.

Attacking the credibility of a witness through contradictions or character evidence.

The process of restoring the credibility of a witness after impeachment.

A person with specialized knowledge who testifies to help the court understand complex issues.

An ordinary witness who testifies based on personal knowledge, not specialized expertise.

Evidence about a person's character traits, generally inadmissible to prove conduct in criminal cases.

The chronological documentation showing seizure, custody, control, transfer, and disposition of evidence.

Scientific evidence (DNA, fingerprints, etc.) used in legal proceedings.

A court proceeding where the accused is formally charged and enters a plea.

A formal written accusation charging a person with a crime, issued by a grand jury.

A group of citizens who review evidence to determine if criminal charges should be filed.

The trial jury that hears evidence and decides the verdict in a case.

A jury unable to reach a unanimous verdict, resulting in a mistrial.

A trial that is terminated before its normal conclusion due to fundamental error or hung jury.

Returning a case to a lower court for further proceedings or sending an accused back to custody.

A judge voluntarily withdrawing from a case due to a potential conflict of interest.

The act of a judge disqualifying themselves from hearing a case.

In chambers. A private hearing conducted in the judge's office or closed courtroom.

On behalf of one party only, without the other party being present or notified.

Temporary or provisional; not final. An interlocutory order is made during the course of proceedings.

A court order suspending judicial proceedings or enforcement of a judgment.

Disobedience or disrespect towards a court of law, punishable by fine or imprisonment.

The criminal offense of making false statements under oath.

Interfering with the administration of justice, such as tampering with evidence or witnesses.

Theft or misappropriation of funds placed in one's trust or belonging to one's employer.

Making, altering, or imitating a document with intent to defraud.

Intentional deception for personal gain or to damage another individual.

The unlawful taking of another person's property with intent to permanently deprive them of it.

Unlawful entry into a building with intent to commit a crime, especially theft.

The criminal act of deliberately setting fire to property.

Deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property.

The unlawful killing of a human being without malice aforethought, less serious than murder.

The killing of one person by another, which may be lawful or unlawful.

The killing of an infant, especially by a parent.

The killing of one's father.

The killing of one's mother.

Pre-constitutional laws inconsistent with Fundamental Rights are not dead but eclipsed, and revive when the FRs are amended.

Only the unconstitutional part of a law is void; the rest remains valid if separable.

Legislature cannot do indirectly what it cannot do directly; substance over form is examined.

Doctrine to determine the true nature of legislation when challenged for legislative competence.

State laws can have extra-territorial operation if there is sufficient connection with the state.

Conflicting constitutional provisions should be interpreted to give effect to both.

When state law conflicts with central law on Concurrent List, central law prevails (Article 254).

Civil servants hold office at the pleasure of the President/Governor (Article 310).

Citizens have right to expect fair treatment from government based on past practices.

Administrative decision unreasonable if no reasonable authority would ever have come to it.

Courts defer to reasonable agency interpretations of ambiguous statutes they administer.

Government action must be proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued (K.S. Puttaswamy).

Equality before law and equal protection of laws within the territory of India.

Guarantees six freedoms to citizens: speech, assembly, association, movement, residence, profession.

Protection of life and personal liberty - cannot be deprived except by procedure established by law.

Right to education for children aged 6-14 years (inserted by 86th Amendment, 2002).

Right to Constitutional Remedies - "Heart and Soul of the Constitution" - Dr. Ambedkar.

Power of High Courts to issue writs for enforcement of FRs and other legal rights.

Writ commanding production of detained person to examine legality of detention.

Writ commanding public authority to perform its statutory duty.

Writ to quash an order of inferior court/tribunal acting without jurisdiction.

Writ to prevent inferior court from exceeding jurisdiction or usurping it.

Writ challenging the authority by which a person holds public office.

The welfare of the people is the supreme law.

The King can do no wrong - basis of sovereign immunity.

A delegate cannot further delegate - limits on delegated authority.

The expression of one thing implies the exclusion of another.

General provisions do not derogate from special provisions.

The burden of proof lies on him who affirms, not on him who denies.

In equal fault - when both parties are equally at fault, court leaves them as they are.

No crime without law - act is not crime unless declared so by statute.

No punishment without law - punishment must be authorized by law.

Law of the place where the wrong was committed governs the case.

Law of the forum - procedural matters governed by court where case is heard.

To a willing person, no injury is done - consent as defense.

Legal injury without actual damage - actionable per se.

Damage without legal injury - not actionable.

Where there is a right, there is a remedy.

Meeting of minds - essential for valid contract formation.

Only parties to a contract can sue or be sued under it.

As much as deserved - reasonable value for work done or services rendered.

Let the buyer beware - buyer must examine goods before purchase.

Let the seller beware - seller liable for latent defects.

Promise reasonably relied upon is binding even without consideration.

Contract becomes impossible to perform due to supervening event (Section 56).

Repudiation of contract before due date of performance.

Pre-determined damages stipulated in the contract itself.

Excessive sum fixed as damages, courts may grant only reasonable compensation.

Substitution of new contract for existing one, or change of parties.

Cancellation of contract, restoring parties to pre-contractual position.

Equitable remedy compelling party to perform contract obligations.

Court order restraining a party from doing or continuing an act.

Unforeseeable circumstances preventing fulfillment of contract.

Ambiguous terms interpreted against the party who drafted them.

Liability without fault - applies to inherently dangerous activities (Rylands v Fletcher).

No escape from liability even with due care - M.C. Mehta v Union of India.

Liability of one person for tortious act of another (employer for employee).

The thing speaks for itself - negligence inferred from facts.

Plaintiff's own negligence contributed to injury - reduces damages.

Person with last chance to avoid accident is liable.

Unreasonable interference with use and enjoyment of land.

Interference affecting specific individual or their property.

Act affecting general public at large - a criminal offense.

Publication of false statement injurious to reputation.

Defamation in permanent form - writing, pictures, broadcast.

Defamation in transient form - spoken words or gestures.

Intentional act causing reasonable apprehension of immediate harmful contact.

Intentional and direct application of force to another person.

Unlawful restraint on personal liberty without lawful justification.

Instituting criminal proceedings maliciously without reasonable cause.

Direct interference with land in possession of another.

Direct interference with body of another - assault, battery, false imprisonment.

Intentional dealing with goods inconsistent with owner's rights.

Obligation to prove a fact - generally on party asserting the fact.

Degree of proof required - beyond reasonable doubt (criminal), preponderance (civil).

Evidence that directly proves a fact without inference.

Evidence from which fact is inferred - chain must be complete.

Statement made out of court offered to prove truth of matter stated - generally inadmissible.

Statement made by person as to cause of death believing death imminent (Section 32).

Statement suggesting inference about fact in issue made by party (Section 17).

Admission of guilt by accused person (Section 24-30).

Confession made before magistrate - admissible against maker.

Confession made outside court - requires corroboration.

Original document itself - best evidence rule (Section 64).

Copy or oral account of document when original unavailable (Section 65).

All documents produced for court's inspection (Section 3).

Statements made by witnesses before court (Section 59-60).

Opinion of skilled person on matters requiring special knowledge (Section 45).

Witness turning hostile to party calling them - can be cross-examined.

Evidence by person participating in crime - requires corroboration.

Statements forming part of same transaction - exception to hearsay (Section 6).

Party precluded from denying or proving contrary to what they previously asserted.

The guilty act - physical element of crime that must be proved.

The guilty mind - mental element required for criminal liability.

Purpose to bring about particular result - highest degree of mens rea.

Awareness that result is likely to occur - less than intention.

Taking unreasonable risk knowing possible consequences.

Failure to exercise reasonable care required by circumstances.

Prearranged plan shared by all participants in crime (Section 34 IPC).

Object shared by unlawful assembly - all members liable (Section 149 IPC).

Instigating, engaging in conspiracy, or aiding commission of offense (Section 107).

Agreement between two or more persons to do illegal act (Section 120A).

Doing act with intent to commit crime, beyond preparation (Section 511).

Right to defend body and property against criminal acts (Sections 96-106).

Defense that act was done to prevent greater harm - lesser evil.

Unsoundness of mind incapable of knowing nature of act (Section 84).

Voluntary intoxication no defense; involuntary may excuse (Section 85-86).

Honest mistake of fact excuses liability (Section 76, 79).

Culpable homicide amounting to murder - punishable with death or life imprisonment.

Causing death with intention or knowledge that act likely to cause death.

Taking away person from lawful guardianship (minor/unsound person).

Forcibly compelling or inducing person to go from any place.

Sexual intercourse without consent or with consent obtained by fear/fraud.

Dishonest misappropriation of property entrusted.

Deception inducing delivery of property or injury to person deceived.

Making or publishing imputation to harm reputation by words or signs.

Bringing hatred or contempt towards government - constitutionality questioned.

Robbery by five or more persons - conjoint offense.

Theft with violence or fear of violence.

Putting person in fear of injury to obtain property or valuable security.

First Information Report - written record of information about cognizable offense.

Offense in which police can arrest without warrant and investigate without permission.

Offense requiring magistrate's permission to investigate and warrant to arrest.

Offense where bail is a matter of right.

Offense where bail is at discretion of court.

Bail granted in anticipation of arrest - discretionary.

Bail granted after arrest during investigation or trial.

Bail as of right when investigation not completed within prescribed time (Section 167).

Police report to magistrate after completing investigation (Section 173).

Case where offense punishable with imprisonment up to 2 years.

Case where offense punishable with death, life imprisonment, or over 2 years.

Process of transferring case from Magistrate to Sessions Court.

Accused pleads guilty for lesser sentence - Chapter XXIA CrPC.

Settlement between parties - certain offenses can be compounded (Section 320).

Treaties must be performed in good faith - fundamental principle of treaty law.

Treaties may be terminated if circumstances fundamentally change.

Peremptory norms of international law from which no derogation permitted.

Obligations owed to international community as a whole.

Belief that practice is legally obligatory - element of customary international law.

Consistent practice of states - element of customary law.

Supreme authority of state within its territory - foundation of international order.

States shall not intervene in internal affairs of other states.

Protection of diplomats from jurisdiction of host state (Vienna Convention 1961).

Limited immunity for consular officials (Vienna Convention 1963).

Surrender of person by one state to another for prosecution or punishment.

Protection granted by state to person fleeing persecution in home country.

Prohibition against returning refugees to countries where they face threats.

Person with consent of real owner in possession of property (Section 41 TPA).

Act by which person conveys property to another (Section 5 TPA).

Claim to debt or beneficial interest that can be enforced in court.

Present fixed interest in property though enjoyment may be postponed.

Interest dependent on uncertain event that may or may not occur.

Transfer of interest in property to secure loan repayment.

Mortgagor personally binds to pay, no property possession transferred.

Mortgagee receives possession and receives rents and profits.

Mortgagor transfers absolutely with condition of reconveyance.

Mortgage by deposit of title deeds with creditor.

Transfer of right to enjoy property for specified time in exchange for rent.

Permission to do something on property that would otherwise be unlawful.

Right to use another's land for specific purpose (dominant and servient estates).

Transfer of property voluntarily without consideration (Section 122 TPA).

Legal declaration of person's intention for property after death.

Disregarding separate legal entity to look at members' liability.

Acts beyond powers of company as defined in Memorandum.

Third parties can assume internal procedures followed - Turquand's Rule.

Charter of company defining its objects and powers.

Internal regulations governing company's management.

Document inviting public to subscribe for securities.

Person who conceives the idea of company and brings it into existence.

Distribution of profits to shareholders - only from profits.

Debt instrument acknowledging loan - creates charge on assets.

Process of dissolution of company and realization of assets.

Remedy for minority shareholders under Sections 241-246.

Mandatory CSR spending for qualifying companies (Section 135).

Marriage that is null from beginning - no legal effect.

Valid until annulled by court - can be set aside.

Legal dissolution of valid marriage.

Court order releasing spouses from cohabitation without dissolving marriage.

Court order directing spouse to return to matrimonial home.

Financial support to spouse and children - Section 125 CrPC.

Right to care for and control a child - welfare of child paramount.

Authority over minor's person and property.

Legal process creating parent-child relationship.

Status of child born within valid marriage.

Transmission of property rights upon death.

Succession according to will made by deceased.

Succession when person dies without valid will.

Person causing pollution bears cost of clean-up and compensation.

Lack of scientific certainty no reason to postpone environmental protection.

Development meeting present needs without compromising future generations.

State holds natural resources in trust for public benefit.

Present generation must preserve environment for future generations.

Study of environmental effects before project approval.

Exclusive right for invention - 20 years protection.

Protection of original literary and artistic works - life plus 60 years.

Distinctive sign identifying goods or services - renewable every 10 years.

Confidential business information providing competitive edge.

Sign identifying goods from specific geographical origin with special qualities.

Protection for novel design of article - 15 years.

Permitted use of copyrighted work for criticism, review, research.

Government permission to use patent without owner's consent.

Rules made by executive under authority delegated by legislature.

Principles of fair procedure - audi alteram partem and nemo judex.

Hear the other side - right to be heard before adverse action.

No one should be judge in their own cause - rule against bias.

Duty to give reasons for administrative decisions.

Body exercising quasi-judicial functions outside regular court system.

Court's power to examine legality of administrative action.

Practices prohibited under labor laws - coercion, discrimination.

Negotiation between employer and workers' representatives.

Dispute between employers and workers relating to employment.

Concerted cessation of work by workers to enforce demands.

Temporary closure of workplace by employer to pressure workers.

Termination of surplus workers for reasons other than misconduct.

Temporary inability of employer to provide work to workers.

Statutory minimum payment to workers - varies by state and industry.